Rocks mechanics legend Erle Donaldson, along with colleagues Waqi Alam and Nasrin Begum from the oil and gas consultant company Tetrahedron, have authored this handbook on updated fundamentals and more recent technology used during a common hydraulic fracturing procedure. Meant for technical and non-technical professionals interested in the subject of hydraulic fracturing, the book provides a clear and simple explanation of the technology and related issues to promote the safe development of petroleum reserves leading to energy independence throughout the world.
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The development of natural gas production from shale beds, which were previously by-passed, has expanded rapidly during the past 20 years. This development took place as a result of the improved technology of horizontal well drilling and hydraulic fracturing. Development of this new hydrocarbon resource in many areas that have not previously been impacted by oil production has increased the awareness of this activity with consequent questions regarding the technology, surface environmental impacts, and concerns of fresh water aquifer contamination by the practice of hydraulic fracturing. Hydraulic fracturing is noteworthy because of the relatively large amount of specialized equipment required for its implementation.
This book is designed to explain the geological aspects (rock mechanics) of hydraulic fracturing in terms that can easily be understood, the technology of hydraulic fracturing and fluids used in the process, and the environmental concerns that have developed as part of the process. Mathematical concepts have been presented in their simplest form with careful attention to the explanation of the theories involved. Some theoretical issues have been removed from the text but are included as appendices for more comprehensive explanations. A few example calculations have also been incorporated as Appendix C for further analyses. A glossary of special terms has been attached and all acronyms used in the text are explained in the Nomenclature.
The technology and applications of hydraulic fracturing have enjoyed tremendous growth following advancements of (1) horizontal directional drilling, (2) micro-seismic monitoring of drilling and fracture growth, (3) development of digital imaging software, and (4) the discovery of slick-water (addition of a polymer to fracture fluid that reduced the conductor tubing pressure loss of injected fluids). The first three blossomed together in the 1990s and underwent rapid refinement into the following decade when they were joined by the introduction of slick-water for fracturing gas-shale.
The developments of hydraulic fracturing technology were coupled to the excitement of the rapid discoveries of gas-shale around the world that could suddenly be produced economically and efficiently. This enormously complex endeavor burst into the public domain under a dark cloud of suspicion when allegations of careless, or inept, applications resulting in shallow fresh water contamination by fluids and gas began to appear in widely read publications. Part of the problem seemed to be a lack of understanding of the process: the use of chemical compounds for friction control, fluid viscosity enhancement to enable the conduct of proppants (generally graded sand), corrosion control, and the enormous amount of fluid that is required to fracture sections of long horizontal wells. Two fine, very technical, publications by the Society of Petroleum Engineers: Reservoir Stimulation and Recent Advances in Hydraulic Fracturing were available along with multiple papers of conferences specifically addressing hydraulic fracturing. All of these are readily available, but the problem associated with them is that they are written at a level that is understood only by engineers. Clearly, there is a need for a comprehensive text on the subject that can explain the salient technical aspects of the art in terms that can be readily understood by anyone who is truly interested in learning about the amazing technical advances that make hydraulic fracturing possible with fine controls that yield great technical precision in its application. That is the purpose and aim of this book.
Login To See SPE Member Price 185 USDWith an author team of 26 subject-matter experts representing a diversity of talent, background, and experience, Hydraulic Fracturing: Fundamentals and Advancements delivers a comprehensive discussion on the principles of hydraulic fracturing while also including the latest processes that have prompted the explosive growth in stimulating horizontal wells in shale and tight oil and gas reservoirs.Learn more about this new book, here.Brief Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 Pretreatment Formation Evaluation Chapter 3 Rock Mechanics and Fracture Geometry Chapter 4 Hydraulic Fracture Modeling Chapter 5 Proppants and Fracture Conductivity Chapter 6 Fracturing Fluids and Additives Chapter 7 Fluid Leakoff Chapter 8 Flow Behavior of Fracturing Fluids Chapter 9 Proppant Transport Chapter 10 Hydraulic Fracturing Treatment Design Chapter 11 Well Completions Chapter 12 Field Implementation of Hydraulic Fracturing Chapter 13 Fracturing Pressure Analysis Chapter 14 Flowback and Early-Time Production Data Analysis Chapter 15 Fracture Diagnostics Chapter 16 Economics of Fracturing Chapter 17 Acid Fracturing Chapter 18 Refracturing
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION George E. King, Jennifer L. Miskimins George E. King is a registered professional engineer with 47 years of oilfield experience, having started his career with Amoco in 1971. He currently consults on well completions, interventions, and well failures, working through Viking Engineering. King holds a BS degree in chemistry from Oklahoma State University and BS and MS degrees in chemical engineering and petroleum engineering, respectively, from the University of Tulsa. Jennifer L. Miskimins is the interim department head and an associate professor in the Petroleum Engineering Department at the Colorado School of Mines. Her research interests focus on the areas of hydraulic fracturing, stimulation, completions, and unconventional reservoirs. Miskimins holds a BS degree in petroleum engineering from the Montana College of Mineral Science and Technology and MS and PhD degrees in petroleum engineering from the Colorado School of Mines. She is an active member of SPE.
CHAPTER 5 PROPPANTS AND FRACTURE CONDUCTIVITY David Milton-Tayler, Robert Duenckel David Milton-Tayler is the technology manager at FracTech Limited, a private firm that offers technology services to the oil and gas industry in the UK and internationally. Robert Duenckel is vice president in the Stim-Lab Division of CoreLab. His interests are directed at all aspects of hydraulic fracturing. Duenckel is a registered professional engineer and holds a BS degree in petroleum engineering from Missouri University of Science and Technology.
CHAPTER 16 ECONOMICS OF FRACTURING C. Mark Pearson, Karen E. Olson C. Mark Pearson is the president and chief executive officer of Liberty Resources LLC. He is an industry expert in the field of well completion and stimulation and is a pioneer of multistage hydraulic fracturing in horizontal wells. Pearson holds BS and PhD degrees from the Camborne School of Mines in the UK, and is a graduate of the Harvard Business School Advanced Management Program. He is an SPE Distinguished Member. Karen E. Olson is the director of technology at Southwestern Energy. She has more than 30 years of industry experience, with a focus on the development and optimization of completions in various types of reservoirs. Olson holds a BS degree in petroleum engineering from Louisiana State University and an MS degree in petroleum engineering from Texas A&M University. She is an SPE Distinguished Member.
While the public is generally aware of the use of hydraulic fracturing for unconventional resource development onshore, it is less familiar with the well completion and stimulation technologies used in offshore operations, including hydraulic fracturing, gravel packs, "fracpacks," and acid stimulation. Just as onshore technologies have improved, these well completion and stimulation technologies for offshore hydrocarbon resource development have progressed over many decades.
In order to be successful, each step of the hydraulic fracturing process relies on a combination of chemistry and chemical engineering, from the formulation of the chemical used to the development of methods to enhance resource recovery to the treatment of water emerging from the well. At the workshop, audience members representing industry, academia, regulatory agencies, NGOs, and the general public participated in the plenary sessions and in a series of focused breakout sessions. Topics included industry drivers for resource development, some social and economic impacts of the development, recent advances in technology and future research needs, and environmental concerns and impacts.
Although the technology of hydraulic fracturing was invented in the late 1940s, it was not until the early 2000s that horizontal drilling and fracturing technology was extensively used to extract natural gas (2000s) and oil (after 2010) from shale reservoirs. The subsequent expansion of oil and gas production in the United States has been dubbed a revolution. (See Figures 1 and 2.)
Randy LaFollette, a chemical engineer at Baker Hughes, provided an overview of the potential benefits of hydraulic fracturing and the many variables that affect production results. A main point, he said, is that the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of rock formations vary widely. Any drilling of this type will require passing through multiple layers of different types of rock, which can vary in depth from millimeters to tens of feet or more. Each layer will have its own characteristics, including porosity and strength, and the interfaces between these layers can be complex. In addition, contained within each layer there may be natural fractures that can affect the performance of the drilling and of the recovery. 2ff7e9595c
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